The emperors of Rome stood at the center of power, yet rarely did they step foot in the land of Israel. From Pompey’s conquest in 63 BC to the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, the Caesars ruled from afar, their policies enforced by client kings, governors, and others. Still, their influence loomed large over the story of Jesus, the apostles, and the early church. To understand the New Testament world, we must trace how Israel came under Rome’s shadow and how the emperors “pulled the strings” in its affairs.
From Babylon to Rome
Israel’s story under foreign empires began long before Rome. Babylon destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple in 586 BC, carrying many into exile. Persia later conquered Babylon, and in 539 BC King Cyrus allowed the Jews to return. Greek rule followed after Alexander the Great’s victory in 331 BC, bringing Hellenistic culture into Judea.
In 164 BC, the Maccabees revolted against Greek oppression, rededicating the Temple and winning independence. The Hasmonean dynasty reigned for a century. But in 63 BC, Roman general Pompey intervened in a Jewish civil war, besieging Jerusalem and entering the Holy of Holies. From that moment, Israel’s independence was gone. Judea became a client kingdom, its rulers answering to Rome.
Julius Caesar and Herod the Great
The rivalry between Julius Caesar and Pompey deepened Rome’s grip on Judea. Caesar rewarded Hyrcanus II and his adviser Antipater (Herod the Great’s father) for supporting him. After Caesar’s assassination in 44 BC, Antipater’s sons rose to power. Herod the Great secured his throne by appealing to Rome directly. In 40 BC, the Senate named him “King of the Jews.” With Roman backing, Herod crushed his rivals and reigned from 37–4 BC.
Herod rebuilt the Temple and strengthened Judea’s economy, but always as Rome’s servant. When Octavian (later Augustus) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra, Herod quickly pledged loyalty, cementing his place as a client king. By the time of Jesus’ birth, Augustus reigned supreme as the first Roman emperor.
Augustus (27 BC–AD 14)
Julius Caesar’s adopted son Octavian took the name Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus. From then on, “Caesar” was a dynastic and political title, not just a family name. Augustus reorganized the empire and established peace after years of civil war. Judea remained a client kingdom under Herod, and it was during Augustus’ reign that Jesus was born. Augustus promoted the imperial cult, encouraging temples and ceremonies in his honor, though Jews were often exempt.
Tiberius (AD 14–37)
Under Tiberius, Judea came under the rule of governors appointed by Rome. One of them, Pontius Pilate, presided over the trial and crucifixion of Jesus. Tiberius himself showed little direct interest in the region, and Christians at this early stage faced no imperial persecution. Still, the emperor cult spread across the empire, planting seeds of later conflict. This is not to say Christians were free from persecution. While not coming from Rome, Jewish groups in Israel and the rest of the empire were a consistent cause of trouble and direct persecution of the Church.
Caligula (AD 37–41)
Caligula’s reign nearly brought disaster to Judea when he ordered his statue to be set up in the Jerusalem Temple. The move outraged the Jews, and only his sudden death prevented open revolt. While Christians were not singled out, the episode revealed how quickly imperial demands for honor could clash with Jewish and Christian faith.
Claudius (AD 41–54)
Claudius continued the system of client kings, granting Herod Agrippa I control of Judea. Later, he placed the region back under Roman procurators. In Rome, Claudius expelled Jews from the city after disturbances “at the instigation of Chrestus.” This likely referred to disputes over Jesus as Christ, showing how early Christian preaching was already causing turmoil. Jewish Christians such as Aquila and Priscilla were directly affected.
Nero (AD 54–68)
Nero’s reign marked both crisis in Judea and persecution in Rome. In AD 64, after the Great Fire of Rome, Nero blamed the Christians, subjecting them to brutal executions in the capital. This was not an empire-wide policy but a local persecution in Rome itself.
During Nero’s reign Paul was arrested in Jerusalem (AD 57–58). He spent about two years imprisoned in Caesarea under Felix and then Festus (Acts 24:27). After appealing to Caesar (Acts 25:11–12), Paul was sent to Rome. His journey, including the shipwreck at Malta, is typically dated around AD 59–60.
He then lived under house arrest in Rome for two years (Acts 28:30–31) before being released, roughly AD 60–62. There is no solid historical evidence that Paul ever personally stood before Nero. Under separate arrests, Christian tradition holds that Peter and Paul were martyred during this time.
In Judea, discontent boiled over into open revolt in AD 66. Nero dispatched Vespasian to crush the rebellion, but Nero’s own downfall in 68 left the task unfinished.
Year of the Four Emperors (AD 68–69)
After Nero’s death, Rome fell into civil war. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius rose and fell within a year. None left a significant mark on Judea, though the revolt there raged on. Vespasian became the fourth emperor in AD 69 and was able to hold power.
Vespasian and Titus (AD 69–81)
Vespasian emerged victorious, founding the Flavian dynasty. Before becoming emperor, he commanded the Roman army in Judea, leaving his son Titus to finish the campaign. In AD 70, Titus captured Jerusalem, destroyed the Temple, and carried its treasures back to Rome. Though Christians were not specifically targeted, Jewish believers suffered alongside their countrymen, while some escaped to Pella across the Jordan.
Domitian (AD 81–96)
Domitian revived the demand for emperor worship, styling himself “Lord and God.” Christians who refused faced charges of atheism and treason. While no empire-wide edict survives, evidence points to persecution in Rome and Asia Minor. Early tradition says John was exiled to Patmos under Domitian, and other Christians—such as Flavius Clemens, a Roman consul—may have been executed. The Book of Revelation, written in this period, reflects the looming shadow of imperial power and persecution.
Conclusion
From Pompey’s conquest to Domitian’s demands, the emperors of Rome shaped Israel’s destiny without ever ruling it directly. They installed client kings, appointed governors, suppressed revolts, and oversaw the Temple’s destruction. Their cult of divine honor clashed with the exclusive worship of Israel’s God and Christ’s lordship. For Jews and Christians alike, life under Rome meant living in Caesar’s shadow—yet the gospel spread in spite of emperors pulling the strings.
Keep in mind this article is about the emperors in the first century. It also gives special attention to the emperors’ persecution of the church. But what we do not cover is the local persecution they had to face or the persecution Christians face in the centuries ahead. We should not take the limited imperial edicts against believers in the first century as the pattern for what they were dealing with on a daily basis or what would follow. Yet unfortunately, as bad as things could be at times and in certain locations, things got much worse for Christians in the empire before they got better. Furthermore, Rome was not the world. There are other places beyond the empire where apostles went to spread the word and gave their lives for Christ.
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